CHAPTER 6 IMPACTS ON HEALTH OF CHILDREN DEPRIVED OF LIBERTY and other services may have compromised the health of entire populations, including children and adolescents.7 In some countries, children are sometimes permitted to live with their incarcerated primary caregivers, usually if it is considered to be in the best interests of the child.8 Arrangements of this sort permit breastfeeding of infants, and promote the development of secure attachment and a prosocial bond between mother and child, which is thought to be mutually beneficial.9 However, there is strong evidence that the children of parents who experience detention (irrespective of whether the child is also in custody) are at increased risk of a range of poor health outcomes including poor mental health, risky substance use, behavioural problems, and sexually transmitted infection.10 There is also good evidence that the children of parents who commit crimes are at increased risk of poor health outcomes, whether or not the parent is incarcerated.11 Imprisonment disproportionately affects the most socio-economically disadvantaged families and communities,12 among whom the prevalence of poor health and social determinants of poor health is highest.13 Therefore, irrespective of whether the child of an imprisoned parent experiences deprivation of liberty, one might expect their health to be worse than that of children whose parents have never been imprisoned. The poor health outcomes seen among children living with an incarcerated mother may be due to factors that preceded the parent’s incarceration. 7 Constanze Quosh, Liyam Eloul & Rawan Ajlani, ‘Mental health of refugees and displaced persons in Syria and surrounding countries: a systematic review’, Intervention, Vol. 11(3), 2013, pp. 276-94; Mazen Kherallah, Tayeb Alahfez, Zaher Sahloul, Khaldoun D. Eddin & Ghyath Jamil, ‘Health care in Syria before and during the crisis’, Avicenna Journal of Medicine, Vol. 2(3), 2012, p. 51. 8 UN Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (‘the Bangkok Rules’), A/RES/65/229, 6 October 2010, p. 17. 9 Mary W. Byrne, Lorie S. Goshin & Sarah S. Joestl, ‘Intergenerational transmission of attachment for infants raised in a prison nursery’, Attachment & Human Development, Vol. 12(4), 2010, pp. 375-93; Michelle Sleed, Tessa Baradon & Peter Fonagy, ‘New Beginnings for mothers and babies in prison: A cluster randomized controlled trial’, Attachment & Human Development, Vol. 15(4), 2013, pp. 349-367. 10 Michael E. Roettger, Raymond R. Swisher, Danielle C. Kuhl & Jorge Chavez, ‘Paternal incarceration and trajectories of marijuana and other illegal drug use from adolescence into young adulthood: evidence from longitudinal panels of males and females in the United States’, Addiction, Vol. 106(1), 2010, pp. 121-132; Mohammad R. Hayatbakhsh, Stuart A. Kinner S, Konrad Jamrozik, Jake M. Najman & Abdullah A. Mamun, ‘Maternal partner criminality and cannabis use in young adulthood: Prospective study’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 41(6), 2007, pp. 546-553; Stuart A. Kinner, Rosa Alati, Jackob M. Najman & Gail M. Williams, ‘Does paternal arrest and imprisonment lead to child behaviour problems and substance use? A longitudinal analysis’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 48(11), 2007, pp. 1148-1156; Joseph Murray, David P. Farrington & Ivana Sekol, ‘Children’s Antisocial Behavior, Mental Health, Drug Use, and Educational Performance After Parental Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 138(2), 2012, pp. 175-210; Gianna T. Le, Julianna Deardorff, Maureen Lahiff & Kim G. Harley, ‘Intergenerational Associations Between Parental Incarceration and Children’s Sexual Risk Taking in Young Adulthood’, Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 64(3), 2019, pp. 398-404. 11 Tyson Whitten, Melanie Burton, Stacy Tzoumakis & Kimberlie Dean, ‘Parental Offending and Child Physical Health, Mental Health, and Drug Use Outcomes: A Systematic Literature Review’, Journal of Child and Family Studies, Vol. 28(5), 2019, pp. 1155-1168. 12 Christopher Wildeman, ‘Parental imprisonment, the prison boom, and the concentration of childhood disadvantage’, Demography, Vol. 46(2), 2009, pp. 265-80; Bruce Western, Becky Kleykamp & Jake Rosenfeld, ‘Crime, Punishment, and American Inequality’, June 2003, Available at https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1fed/4fe0f5e826abb2149eeac797aad4263461ad.pdf (accessed 1 August 2019). 13 Michael Marmot, ‘Social determinants of health inequalities’, The Lancet, Vol. 365(9464), 2005, pp. 1099-1104; Michael Marmot, ‘Inclusion health: addressing the causes of the causes’, The Lancet, Vol. 391(10117), 2017, pp. 186-188. 118