law”.861 The Human Rights Committee specified that the right to be presumed innocent extends until the prosecution has proved each element of a criminal charge beyond a reasonable doubt.862 This presumption is non-derogable.863 361. The actions of public authorities, the media and the courts all affect the presumption of innocence. Therefore, international bodies found that all public authorities are to refrain from publically stating or otherwise prejudicing the outcome of any criminal trial.864 For instance, public statements by senior officials on the guilt of the accused, such as statements advocating for an accused to be sentenced to death, are a violation of the presumption of innocence.865 Media reporting that is capable of influencing ongoing or subsequent court proceedings to the detriment of the defendant may also undermine the presumption of innocence.866 The right to be presumed innocent also requires that the judge and the jurors not hold any preconceptions or notions of the defendant’s guilt.867 Hence, defendants should generally not be shackled, held in cages or otherwise presented as dangerous criminals during trial.868 362. Additionally, the length of pre-trial detention should not be indicative of guilt.869 When pre-trial or preventative detention is excessive, such as when pre-trial or preventative detention exceeds a reasonable period of time,870 the presumption of innocence may be violated.871 363. International humanitarian law also protects the presumption of innocence. API stipulates that “[n]o sentence may be passed and no penalty may be executed on a person found 861 ICCPR, Art. 14(2); Nowak, CCPR Commentary, op. cit., note 93, pp. 329-330: “The prevailing view (…) is that the presumption of innocence, as well as most of the other rights in Art. 14, are available not only to the defendant in the strictest sense of the word but also to an accused person prior to the filing of a criminal charge. A person has this right ‘until proved guilty according to law.’” 862 UN HRC, General Comment No. 32, op. cit., note 648, para. 30. 863 Ibid., paras. 6, 30; UN HRC General Comment No. 29, op. cit., note 111, para. 11. 864 UN HRC, General Comment No. 32, ibid., para. 30; UN HRC, Munguwambuto Kabwe Peter Mwamba v. Zambia, Communication No. 1520/2006, 30 April 2010, para. 6.5, <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2FC%2F98%2FD%2F1520%2F200 6&Lang=en>. 865 UN HRC, Francisco Juan Larrañaga v. The Philippines, Communication No. 1421/2005, 14 September 2006, para. 7.4, <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2fC%2f87%2fD%2f1421%2f2005& Lang=en>; UN HRC, Dimitry L. Gridin v. Russian Federation, Communication No. 770/1997, 20 July 2000, para. 8.3, <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2FC%2F69%2FD%2F770%2F1997 &Lang=en>. 866 UN HRC, General Comment No. 32, op. cit., note 648, para. 30; UN HRC, Mwamba v. Zambia, op. cit., note 864, para. 6.5; UN HRC, Barno Saidova v. Tajikistan, Communication No. 964/20001, 20 August 2004, para. 6.6, <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2fC%2f81%2fD%2f964%2f2001&L ang=en>. 867 UN HRC, General Comment No. 32, ibid., para. 21; UN HRC, Arvo O. Karttunen v. Finland, op. cit., note 779, para. 7.2; Nowak, CCPR Commentary, op. cit., note 93, p. 330. 868 UN HRC, General Comment No. 32, ibid., para. 30. 869 Ibid. 870 IACHR, Jorge A. Giménez v. Argentina, Case No. 11.245, Report 12/96, 1 March 1996, paras. 80, 114, <http://cidh.org/annualrep/95eng/Argentina11245.htm>. 871 The Human Rights Committee found a violation of the presumption of innocence when preventative detention before trial exceeded nine years. UN HRC, Geniuval M. Cagas, Wilson Butin and Julio Astillero v. The Philippines, Communication No. 788/1997, para. 7.3, 23 October 2001, <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download. aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2fC%2f73%2fD%2f788%2f1997&Lang=en>. 158