communities within a society more acutely. For linguistic minorities, there is the question of the use of their mother tongue within the armed forces: whether official communication takes place in the armed forces in all the official languages of the country or only the majority language, and whether they are allowed to communicate in their own language while on duty. The re-establishment of ethnic co-operation within unified armed forces is of particular significance in countries that have endured ethnic conflict. This is particularly challenging, as it requires the (re)integration of former enemies. Even where it is necessary to maintain separate structures, measures need to be taken to ensure timely dialogue among the military leaders of different communities and the rapid re-establishment of a national command structure. The military can face a number of special tasks in the post-conflict phase that are designed to support reconciliation, such as special programmes to encourage the recruitment of members of ethnic groups under-represented in the armed forces and by giving prominence to multiethnic considerations when decisions about downsizing, demobilization, disarmament, and reintegration into civilian life are under discussion. The temporary presence of an international peacekeeping force can be a further opportunity to demonstrate the possibility of co-operation among different groups. Moreover, where international deployments are concerned, their effectiveness in peacekeeping may be enhanced if they are obviously composed of different ethnic groups. 2. International Human Rights Commitments The right to equality is well recognized in international human rights law, as Box 12.2 below shows. It is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, although there are some significant differences between these texts. All of these instruments ban discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, national origin, and religion. Art. 27 of the ICCPR specifically extends protection to include discrimination against ethnic, religious, or linguistic minorities. Box 12.2 Equality and Non-discrimination Provisions in Selected Human Rights Treaties Art. 2 UDHR Art. 26 ICCPR Art. 27 ICCPR Art. 14 ECHR Art. 1 of Protocol 12 to the ECHR 102 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language. The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status. 1. The enjoyment of any right set forth by law shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status. 2. No one shall be discriminated against by any public authority on any ground such as those mentioned in paragraph 1. Handbook on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Armed Forces Personnel