argued that women might gain from being excluded from the armed forces, and that it might be desirable for a society as a whole that women constitute a “peaceful” sector in society. However, this argument ignores that women and men should be treated alike in terms of citizenship and equal opportunities. Without the experience of participation in the military, women will be less able to raise their voices in security discourse.225 Women’s participation in the military is a key part of their participation in the management and resolution of conflict. Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security (2000) reaffirms: the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and in peace-building. [It urges states] to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict. Equal representation Women’s access to the military is also an important aspect of the democratization of the armed forces in terms of the adequate representation of all groups constituting society. This was a central aspect regarding, for example, the integration of African Americans in the United States or Catholics in Germany, where, in the 1970s, the Federal Armed Forces made efforts to increase the number of Catholic officers in order to build a more democratic leadership in the army and to include important groups from the civilian sector. As these examples show, armed forces not only mirror society, but they can also be a progressive force in the struggle of excluded groups for equal rights (such as in the case of African Americans in the United States), or they can retard these processes (as is often still the case with regard to women). A further aspect of democratization refers to what may be called the “inner life” of the army. Studies have shown that — contrary to what many believe — male bonding has little to do with military efficiency; military groups can find different, more inclusive ways of bonding and developing camaraderie. The production of a more inclusive, i.e., also genderinclusive, army makes for a more democratic army and society. Non-discrimination issues Women’s participation in the military is a question of non-discrimination, i.e., equivalent career opportunities for men and women, equal access to different functions, equal wages, and elimination of abuses against female service personnel. It is also a question of positive acceptance and integration of women in the military environment and in military tradition. Gender and operational effectiveness The benefits of including women in the armed forces and their contribution to peace and security should not be overlooked. Participation of women in the military can be particularly important in peacekeeping, the core function of most military forces. Peacekeeping differs in many ways from traditional military functions in that it emphasizes protection of the civilian population and involves characteristics related to conflict resolution and reconstruction. The presence of women in peacekeeping forces has been recognized as improving the force’s relationship with the host community, and the force’s capacity to engage with and protect women and children.226 225  Uta Klein, “The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society”, Current Sociology, Vol. 50, No. 5, 2002, pp. 669-686. 226  See UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security, available at <http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/720/18/PDF/N0072018.pdf?OpenElement>. 114 Handbook on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Armed Forces Personnel