32 7.4.2 Many conducted electrical weapons can also deliver an electric shock when pressed directly against an individual (a use sometimes referred to as “drivestun mode”), though the effect relies on pain compliance and does not result in neuro-muscular incapacitation. CIRCUMSTANCES OF POTENTIALLY LAWFUL USE 7.4.3 Among other uses, conducted electrical weapons are used by law enforcement officials to incapacitate individuals at a distance posing an imminent threat of injury (to others or to themselves).96 In some situations, they offer an alternative to the use of firearms, and in other circumstances, an alternative to other less-lethal weapons that might prove more dangerous either to the law enforcement official or to the individual being targeted. The use of reddotting or arcing, or the simple aiming of a conducted electrical weapon, may achieve a legitimate law enforcement objective without the need to discharge the weapon. 7.4.4 To prevent a prolonged charge from being applied to a suspect, every conducted electrical weapon should have an automatic cut-off of the electrical charge. This is often set at no more than five seconds. Currently, not all weapons have an automatic cut-off feature. SPECIFIC RISKS 7.4.5 The risks caused by the discharge of a conducted electrical weapon include primary injury from the electrical charge or the barbs imbedded in the skin.97 Elderly people may be more prone than others to musculoskeletal injury from the muscle contractions produced by the weapon.98 Conducted electrical weapons should not be used against persons in elevated positions owing to US Court of Appeals (Fourth Circuit), Armstrong v. Village of Pinehurst, Judgment, 11 January 2016, pp. 19, 21. 97 J. Payne-James and B. Sheridan, “TASER® Clinical Effects and Management of those subjected to TASER® Discharge”, Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine, United Kingdom, 2017 (available at https://bit.ly/2EXzCmV). 98 Defence Scientific Advisory Council Sub-committee on the Medical Implications of Less-lethal Weapons (DOMILL), Statement on the Medical Implications of Use of the Taser X26 and M26 Less-Lethal Systems on Children and Vulnerable Adults, United Kingdom, 2012 (available at http://bit.ly/2AYRieJ). 96