manner. The reasons why and the way individuals radicalize towards terrorism vary greatly. While some factors may have a pivotal role in a decision to engage in violent extremism and terrorist violence, they may have only a peripheral role (or may play no 34 part at all) in other instances. Possible drivers of radicalization leading to terrorism or 35 violence are, therefore various and complex, combining differently in each individual case. There is no one factor that would be necessary and sufficient to explain an individual’s radicalization to terrorism or violence. 33 While there is no single determining feature, it is also acknowledged that radicalization 36 to violence or terrorism does not happen in a vacuum. Two main sets of factors have been identified, often referred to as “push factors”, making individuals more susceptible to VERLT, and “pull factors”, drawing them into a process of radicalization to terrorism or violence. The manner in which push and pull factors will come into play will vary in each case, as they are linked, for instance, to a person’s experience, psychological and cognitive factors, and to real or perceived feelings of exclusion, deprivation, humiliation, 37 injustice, frustration, revolt or superiority. • The “push factors” stem from conditions conducive to VERLT, including those such as structural, political and socio-economic instability from which VERLT emerges.38 Some of the conditions that make individuals more vulnerable to recruitment and participation in terrorism recognized at the UN and OSCE include, but are not limited to “prolonged unresolved conflicts, dehumanization of victims of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, lack of rule of law, violations of human rights, ethnic, national and religious discrimination, political exclusion, socio-economic marginalization and lack of good governance”.39 While these conditions were initially identified as relevant factors in relation to terrorism, they have also been applied to VERLT in policy debate.40 • The “pull factors” refer to interpersonal and social dynamics, including recruitment dynamics and influences that actively draw an individual to engage in a process of radicalization to terrorism or violence. The group dynamics, both offline and online, and the conviction of radicalizers/groomers and of narratives legitimizing terrorism 33 34 EUROPOL, “European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report”, 23 June 2020, p. 11. Andrew Silke, “Becoming a Terrorist”, in Andrew Silke (ed.), Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and its Consequences (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003), p. 34. OSCE, Preventing Terrorism and Countering Violent Extremism and Radicalization that Lead to Terrorism, op. cit., note 22, p. 35. UN, “Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism”, op. cit., note 7, para. 3. RAN, “The Root Causes of Violent Extremism”, Issue Paper, 4 January 2016, p. 3; OSCE, Preventing Terrorism and Countering Violent Extremism and Radicalization that Lead to Terrorism, op. cit., note 22, pp. 37-38. For a discussion on how the experience or perception of abuse and violations by government authorities are determining factors that contribute to the level of vulnerability to violent extremism, or resilience thereto, see: UN Special Rapporteur on Counter-Terrorism, “Human Rights Impact of Policies and Practices Aimed at Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, op. cit., note 25, para. 19-20. “UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy”, op. cit., note 4, Pillar I; OSCE, “Ministerial Statement on Supporting the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy”, op. cit., note 4, para.4. UN, “Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism”, op. cit., note 7, para. 24-31. These include the following: lack of socio-economic opportunities; marginalization and discrimination; poor governance, violations of human rights and the rule of law; prolonged and unresolved conflicts; and radicalization in prisons. 35 36 37 38 39 40 18