with the various roles women and children may have played in violent extremist groups and their potential dual status as perpetrators and victims, call for gender- and agesensitive risk and needs assessments. As of today, most assessment tools used in prison have been designed for populations of men and do not, therefore, account for women188 specific factors associated with the risk of re-offending. Similarly, these assessment tools have been designed based on the male experience of radicalization to terrorism, which means they are less able to determine women violent extremists’ risk of re-offending 189 and deradicalization. The UN Bangkok Rules, adopted in 2010, require the adoption and implementation of 190 gender-sensitive classification methods. They also prescribe individualized, gendersensitive, trauma-informed and comprehensive treatment, including mental-health care, 191 the failure of which may lead to increased radicalization leading to terrorism or violence. Gender-sensitive risk and needs assessments should take into account the generally lower risk posed by women prisoners to others, the particularly harmful effects that highsecurity measures and increased levels of isolation can have on them, and information 192 about women’s backgrounds, such as violence they may have experienced. As for children, risk and needs assessments should take into consideration the level of their mental, intellectual and emotional maturity, and be responsive to the various factors that may have led them to VERLT (indoctrination, criminal opportunism, coercion, travel with their parents as “foreign terrorist fighters”). This is essential in order to elaborate, preferably with the participation of the children themselves and as conducted by child specialists, appropriate responses and support, including mental health and trauma 193 support. The various profiles and motives of returning “foreign terrorist fighters” need to be explored in their risk and needs assessments, together with the knowledge, skills and training they may have gained. While many may have sought to join violent extremist groups, others may have been motivated by adventure or monetary gain, or may have travelled with a genuine intention to help provide humanitarian assistance but then became involved with these groups. Some may be ready to withdraw from VERLT, but this readiness may be undermined if they are arbitrarily placed in overly restrictive conditions. Others may need psychological support, as they may suffer post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma, 194 behavioural unpredictability and emotional instability. 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 ODIHR & PRI, Guidance Document on the Nelson Mandela Rules, op. cit., note 10, Chapter 1, para. 80 Katherine Brown, “The Importance of Gender”, in SPOTLIGHT, Prisons Rehabilitation and Reintegration, December 2020, pp 26-35. UN Bangkok Rules, op. cit., note 79, Rule 40 and 41. Ibid., note 79, Rule 12; PRI, “Preventing Radicalization in Prisons”, op. cit., note 64, p. 8. UN Bangkok Rules, ibid., note 79, Rule 41. Individualized risk and needs assessments should take into account all possible ways in which a (female) prisoner may be a risk. There is currently limited research on whether female prisoners pose less of a risk when it comes to the radicalization to terrorism/violence of other prisoners. Global Center on Cooperative Security & ICCT, “Rehabilitating Juvenile Violent Extremist Offenders in Detention”, op. cit., note 47, p. 3. The Havana Rules further develop the elements of the classification and placement procedures to be applied to juveniles, UN Havana Rules, op. cit., note 86, Rules 27-30. UNODC Handbook on the Management of Violent Extremist Prisoners and the Prevention of Radicalization to Violence in Prisons, op. cit., note 2, p. 66. 43