Endnotes 1 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), Rule 4. 2 ‘Rehabilitation and social reintegration of prisoners’, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, www.unodc.org/ dohadeclaration/en/topics/prisonerrehabilitation.html. 3 Roy Walmsley, Institute for Criminal Policy Research, World Female Imprisonment List, 4th edition, 2017, p2. This data indicates that the number of women and girls in prison worldwide has increased by some 53 per cent since about 2000, with women and girls making up 6.9 per cent of the global prison population. 4 For example, see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Roadmap for the Development of Prison-based Rehabilitation Programmes, 2017, and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Introductory Handbook on the Prevention of Recidivism and the Social Reintegration of Offenders, 2012. 5 Penal Reform International and the Thailand Institute of Justice acknowledge that the promising examples have been collected using the data available and might not cover all the practical aspects of implementing these programmes. 6 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Article 10 (3). 7 The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), 2015. 8 The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), Rule 4. 9 The Nelson Mandela Rules and the Bangkok Rules are ‘soft law’. They are not binding on states but provide minimum standards and guidance. The Nelson Mandela Rules are often regarded by states as the primary – if not only – source of standards relating to treatment in detention, and are the key framework used by monitoring and inspection mechanisms in assessing the treatment of prisoners. 10 For more information, see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The Doha Declaration, 2015. 11 Mohammed H and Wan Mohamed WA, ‘Reducing Recidivism Rates through Vocational Education and Training’, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol 204, 2015, pp272–276. 12 For more information, see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The Doha Declaration, 2015. 13 The three other components are ‘strengthening judicial integrity and preventing corruption in the justice system; preventing youth crime through sports-based programmes and life skills training; and supporting the integration of crime prevention and the rule of law into all levels of education’. 14 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Roadmap for the Development of Prison-based Rehabilitation Programmes, 2017, and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Introductory Handbook on the Prevention of Recidivism and the Social Reintegration of Offenders, 2018. 50 | 15 For example, see GHK, Survey on Prison Education and Training in Europe, July 2012. 16 For example, a 2005 study of Nordic prison education found that it was particularly difficult for pre-trial prisoners to concentrate on learning given their uncertain status. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nordic Prison Education: A lifelong learning perspective, Copenhagen, 2005, p58. 17 Sampson R and Laub J, Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993, cited in Maruna S and Immarigeon R (eds), After Crime and Punishment: Pathways to offender reintegration, Devon, UK, 2004, p15. 18 For example, see GHK, Survey on Prison Education and Training in Europe, July 2012. 19 Lifelong Learning, Access of adults to formal and non-formal adult education – policies and priorities. The case of Slovenia, 2010, p70. 20 Boyadjieva P, Milenkova V, Gornev G, Petkova K and Nenkova D, The Role of Bulgarian Educational Institutions for Promotion of Access of Adults to Formal Education, Institute of Sociology – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2009, p22. 21 Open Society Justice Initiative, Presumption of guilt: The Global Overuse of Pre-trial Detention, 2014, Executive Summary. 22 For example, see HM Inspectorate of Prisons for England and Wales, Unjust Deserts: A Thematic Review by HM Chief Inspector of Prisons of the Treatment and Conditions for Unsentenced Prisoners in England and Wales, London, 2000. 23 United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Mission to Nigeria, 4–10 March 2007, 22 November 2007, A/HRC/7/3/Add.4. 24 The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), Rule 116. 25 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, The right to education of persons in detention, 2009, A/HRC/11/8, para. 51. 26 For example, in a survey of women prisoners in Kazakhstan, 41 per cent had committed theft and property offences and 28 per cent were in prison for drug-related offences. Penal Reform International, Who are women prisoners? Survey results from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, 2014. Similarly, a 2012 study of female offenders in South Africa found that 55 per cent of the women interviewed became involved in criminal activity due to financial pressure. 27 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan: female prisoners and their social reintegration, March 2007, p65. 28 Jeffries S and Chontit C, ‘Vulnerabilities, victimisation, romance and indulgence: Thai women’s pathways to prison in Cambodia for international cross border drug trafficking’, International Journal of Law – Crime and Justice, Vol 56, 2019, pp39–52. 29 Gender, Health and Justice Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Policy brief – Women in Prison: Work, Education and Vocational Training, Women’s Pathways to Prison project, 2012, p1. 30 Moldoshev A, Violence against Women in Kyrgyzstan: Baseline Assessment, United Nations Population Fund, p8, quoted in the report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, on her mission to Kyrgyzstan, 9–16 November 2009, A/HRC/14/22/Add.2, para. 26 31 For example, in a survey of women prisoners in Kazakhstan, 41 per cent had committed theft and property offences and 28 per cent were in prison for drug-related offences. Penal Reform International, Who are women prisoners? Survey results from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, 2014. Similarly, a 2012 study of female offenders in South Africa found that 55 per cent of the women interviewed became involved in criminal activity due to financial pressure. 32 Richie B, Compelled to Crime: The Gender Entrapment of Battered Black Women, Routledge, 1996, pp127–131. 33 Agren D, ‘Female felons swell ranks among Mexican criminals’, USA Today, 2 December 2010, usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/ world/2010-12-02-mexicocartels02_ ST_N.htm. 34 Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, Domestic violence in Macedonia, September 1998. 35 For example, amongst prisoners in England and Wales, 33 per cent had been expelled or permanently excluded from school and 47 per cent had no qualifications. Prison Reform Trust, Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile, Autumn 2018, p20. 36 Van den Bergh B, Gatherer A and Møller L, ‘Women’s health in prison: urgent need for improvement in gender equity and social justice’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Vol 87, No 6, 2009. 37 Prison Reform Trust, Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile, Autumn 2018. 38 For more information, see advocaidsl.org. 39 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Country Office Pakistan, Females Behind Bars: Situation and Needs Assessment in Female Prisons and Barracks, 2011, Executive Summary. 40 Gender, Health and Justice Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Policy brief – Women in Prison: Work, Education and Vocational Training, Women’s Pathways to Prison project, 2012, p3. 41 GHK, Survey on Prison Education and Training in Europe, July 2012. 42 For example, in a study of prisoner education in Nordic countries, prisoners were often unable to complete a course during their prison term because their sentence was too short. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nordic Prison Education: A lifelong learning perspective, Copenhagen, 2005. 43 The German Federal Constitutional Court has stated that prison institutions ‘have a duty in the case of prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment, to strive towards their resocialization, to preserve their ability to cope with life and to counteract the negative effects of incarceration’. Decision of the German Federal Constitutional Court (BVerfG 21 June 1977). Penal Reform International and Thailand Institute of Justice | Guide to the rehabilitation and social reintegration of women prisoners