example, a quarter of working women are in informal employment.54 These arrangements leave women without a safety net if they cannot work during public emergencies. These factors contribute to the pronounced gender wage gap55 and the pension gap,56 both of which leave women more vulnerable to economic shocks and recessions that follow crises. The unequal division of unpaid care and domestic work Women perform the majority of unpaid domestic and care work. Global data indicate that, on average, women spend 15 per cent of their time per day on unpaid household work, while men spend six per cent of their day on the same. Women spend around three per cent of their day on unpaid care work, as compared to one per cent among men.57 In the Eurasian region, women spend, on average, 2.5 times more time on these activities than men.58 Gender gaps are greatest when adherence to traditional gender roles is strongest, but these patterns persist even in countries “that express strong and progressive attitudes towards gender equality.”59 For example, in the European Union (EU), women represent 58 per cent of all informal carers of children.60 They also make up almost 85 per cent of all one-parent families in the EU.61 Women’s responsibilities mean that they are more likely to be in flexible, but less secure and lower paid employment, or to be out of the labour market. They have more demands on their time and rely on public services, such as nurseries and schools. 54 International Labour Organization (ILO), Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture. Third Edition (Geneva: ILO 2018), p. 40, <https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/ publication/wcms_626831.pdf>. 55 For the Europe and Central Asian region, it is estimated that the gross income per capita for men is almost twice that for women ($20 674 USD, compared to $10 588 USD). See: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2019, (New York: UNDP 2019), p. 315 <http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf>. 56 In the European OECD countries, pension payments to women over age 65 are, on average, 25 per cent less than payments to men; the gap is over 40per cent in some European countries. See: OECD, “Women at the Core of the Fight against COVID-19 Crisis, Version 1st”, April, 2020, p. 10, <https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/ women-at-the-core-of-the-fight-against-covid-19-crisis-553a8269/>. 57 Data for 2001-2018. See: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2020: SDG 5 Gender Equality”, <https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/goal-05/>. 58 OECD, Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), “SIGI 2019 Regional Report for Eurasia, 15 May 2019, <http://www. oecd.org/social/sigi-2019-regional-report-for-eurasia-f6dfa21d-en.htm>. 59 OECD, “Women at the Core of the Fight against COVID-19 Crisis, Version 1st”, op. cit., note 51, p. 4. 60 European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), “Work-Life Balance (2019) / Informal Caring for Children and Childcare Services”, <https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/thematic-focus/work-life-balance/ caring-for-children>. 61 EIGE, “Poverty, Gender and Lone Parents in the EU”, 19 September 2016, <https://eige.europa.eu/publications/ poverty-gender-and-lone-parents-eu>. 19