Teresa Fernández Paredes 71 The process of attributing specific characteristics or roles to men and women based solely on their membership in one group or the other is referred to as gender stereotyping. The values, behaviors, and expectations attributed to the male or female sex are gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes, in turn, are social and cultural constructs of what men and women should be, center­ ing on physical, biological, sexual, and social differences, which draw on preconceived notions about the different attributes or characteristics they possess or the roles they fulfill or should fulfill (“the natural role of women is motherhood,” or “men are always physically strong”).84 Gender stereotypes become discriminatory when they work to deny the rights and freedoms of persons or deprive them of access to justice.85 They have also been considered a form of violence against women.86 Furthermore, gender stereotypes often intersect87 with other stereotypes to produce com­ pounded forms of discrimination. The processes of gender stereotyping are related to concepts of masculinity and femininity. Masculinity refers to the set of behaviors and qualities associated with men within a culture, such as the role of protectors of family and community, virility, and bravery, while femininity refers to the set of behaviors and qualities associated with women, such as sensitivity, need for protection, and the role of caregiver. This creates a set of “shoulds” for both men and women, who must act in accordance with the behaviors and qualities attributed to them, such as when men seek to prove their manhood throughout their lives by performing acts that are not perceived as feminine. In addition, each culture defines masculinity and femininity differently. There is a hegemonic, predominant model of masculinity and femininity in any given society and era, which leads to the rejection of those who do not fit into the model. This rejection is supported by a conception of male and female sexuality defined by heterosexuality and which limits and punishes affection, intimacy, and closeness between men or between women. In this hegemonic model, homosexual men are rejected and labeled as less “manly,” or masculine, and homosexual women are rejected as less “womanly,” or feminine.88 Any form of behavior considered outside of or contrary to the model may be punished with violence. In light of the above, gender-based violence refers to violence directed against certain individ­ uals or groups because of their gender, or violence directed against certain individuals or groups 84 Cook, Rebecca and Cusack, Simone. Estereotipos de género: Perspectivas legales transnacionales. (A. Parra, Trans.). Bogotá, Colombia: Profamilia, 2010, pp. 23–25. 85 Ibid. See also: Gender Stereotyping: A Priority Issue in the Campaign to Eliminate Gender-based Violence against Women Panel: Gender Stereotypes—Gender Violence, 57th session of the Commission on the Status of Women, UN Church Centre, New York, 8 March 2013, Simone Cusack and Rebecca J. Cook. 86 Ibid. 87 General Recommendation No. 28 of the CEDAW Committee on the Core Obligations of States Parties under Article 2, contains a definition of “intersectionality” that, although in this case it is defined in relation to women, can be extrapolated to any vulnerable group: “18. Intersectionality is a basic concept for understanding the scope of the general obligations of States parties contained in article 2. The discrimination of women based on sex and gender is inextricably linked with other factors that affect women, such as race, ethnicity, religion or belief, health, status, age, class, caste and sexual orientation and gender identity. Discrimination on the basis of sex or gender may affect women belonging to such groups to a different degree or in different ways to men. States parties must legally recognize such intersecting forms of discrimination and their compounded negative impact on the women concerned and prohibit them. They also need to adopt and pursue policies and programmes designed to eliminate such occurrences, including, where appropriate, temporary special measures in accordance with article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention and general recommendation No. 25. UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), General Recommendation No. 28 on the Core Obligations of States Parties under Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 16 December 2010, CEDAW/C/GC/28 88 Bergara, Ander, Riviere, Bacete Josetxu, Bacete Ritxar, op. cit., pp. 21-24.