the IOM has also developed special procedures for victims of trafficking.82 Most EU member states provide some form of “assisted voluntary return” to irregular migrants and asylum seekers whose claims for refugee status have been denied.83 Often, these programmes are not run by the government but by an international organization, such as the IOM,84 and usually with the support of local NGOs. In some countries, multiple programmes are available. Without a formal framework in place for implementing return programmes and procedures, including safeguards for the protection of victims’ rights, states risk undermining the right of all persons to leave any country and enter their own country, as well as their obligation to facilitate the safe return of trafficked persons. Research confirms that victims are left feeling vulnerable and anxious by inadequate return processes that fail to provide assurances of their safety, information on the return process, including potential difficulties they may encounter, and arrangements for the victim to be met at their destination.85 The manner and conduct of return is also important in terms of ensuring respect for the rights and dignity of the trafficked person. It is also important to acknowledge that identifying victims as trafficked persons during the transportation process could be problematic in some circumstances, as it may lead to the victim’s stigmatization or harassment.86 Under international and regional laws, OSCE participating States are required to protect the privacy and identity of victims of trafficking as much as possible and to the extent that it does not compromise the rights of others, including accused persons. Relevant policies, including those developed under the auspices of the OSCE, affirm this standard and the connection between respect for privacy and safe return. In recognition of their particular vulnerabilities, special and additional obligations apply with respect to trafficked children. National laws in the OSCE region generally protect the right to privacy and identity. However, only some OSCE participating States have provisions in place that directly address the privacy concerns of trafficked persons. 82 Jobe, The Causes and Consequences of Re-Trafficking, op. cit., note 39, p. 48; the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Handbook on Direct Assistance for Victims of Trafficking (Geneva: IOM, 2007), Chapter 3. In some countries, the IOM is involved from the identification stage to the reintegration stage, while in others it may only be responsible for the return itself. The IOM return assistance also depends on arrangements with governments and local service providers, as well as on the legal and policy frameworks in place (Jobe, The Causes and Consequences of Re-Trafficking, p. 45). All IOM country-office operations in relation to trafficked persons, including returns, are to be conducted in accordance with the IOM Handbook. The IOM also has a specific policy concerning the voluntary return of trafficked persons that provides information on legal frameworks and practical guidance on the conduct of returns. In addition to receiving assistance for safe return, trafficking victims may also receive housing and shelter, educational and vocational training and financial and medical assistance. 83  Generally understood as “the provision of (logistical, financial and/or other material) assistance for the Voluntary Return of a returnee” (see “Programmes and Strategies in the EU Member States”, European Migration Network, op. cit., note 13, p. 16). 84  For example, La Strada administers the return programme in Poland. UNODC, Human Trafficking in the Baltic Sea Region, op. cit., note 37, p. 39. 85 Surtees, Listening to Victims, op. cit., note 77, p. 107. 86  See Self-Empowerment Program for Migrant Women (SEPOM), ‘Trafficked’ Identities as a Barrier to Community Reintegration: Five Stories of Women Rebuilding Lives and Resisting Categorisation, GAATW Feminist Participatory Action Research Series (Bangkok: GAATW, 2010). Part 2: Explanatory Report to the Principles 45