such as laws and measures relevant to the admissibility of confession evidence, are not sufficient alone to change practices and cultures within police and other investigative bodies. Legal and procedural safeguards afforded to suspects are only effective in combination with the availability of adequate investigation technologies and means. Countries that have successfully curtailed the use of torture or other ill-treatment have combined legal and procedural safeguards with investment in training and education on investigative interviewing techniques. In this context, it is crucial to entrench the understanding of all actors involved in the investigation phase that the aim of questioning is not to obtain a confession from somebody already presumed guilty by the interviewing officers. Rather, the principle aim is to obtain accurate and reliable information in order to discover the truth about matters under investigation.54 Only when those different elements are brought together in a holistic approach do they reinforce each other and reduce the risk of torture or other ill-treatment. Promising practice – alternatives to coercive interrogation practices that amount to ill-treatment, or even torture, and related safeguards 23. Some countries that have made significant progress towards reducing the risk of torture or other ill-treatment have done so by adopting new investigative techniques. In a Western European participating State, high-profile miscarriages of justice involving coerced confessions resulted in the enactment of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, in 1984.55 The law includes mandatory audio recording of all suspect interviews, the right to legal representation for suspects in police custody, limits on detention before charge and new investigative interviewing techniques. 24. The shift from coercive interrogation practices for information gathering to investigative and non-coercive interviewing models was also facilitated by the adoption of a new technique of investigative interviewing, known as the PEACE model, which was developed in 1992 with the input of psychologists, lawyers and academics.56 The model sets out techniques for interviewing that put the focus of the interview on eliciting accurate and reliable information that can be used as evidence, rather than on coercing a confession to confirm an existing theory the interviewer might 54 55 56 OSCE/ODIHR, Human Rights In Counter-Terrorism Investigations – A practical Manual For Law Enforcement Officers, (2013), p. 94. In England and Wales. Mary Schollum, “Bringing PEACE to the United States: A Framework for Investigative Interviewing”, Police Chief Magazine, (2017) p. 32. 21