cockroaches’48. However, there are also systemic, long-standing reasons for the number of deaths related to the use of firearms by law enforcement, particularly the militaristic culture and tactics adopted by some Brazilian police forces, including the reckless use of high-powered automatic weapons in densely built-up areas as well as the use of helicopters as platforms from which to shoot at suspects49. In addition to the widespread use of firearms in non-custodial settings, lethal weapons are also carried on a routine basis by security personnel in prisons and other places of detention. In these contexts, firearms are often used to threaten or intimidate prisoners, although some deaths have also been reported50. caused by stun grenades in the United States alone since 200051. Given their indiscriminate nature and their propensity to cause panic, stun grenades should not be considered as an acceptable means of crowd control. The UN Human Rights Guidance on Less Lethal Weapons in Law Enforcement states that “the use of pyrotechnic flash-bang grenades directly against a person would be unlawful”.52 Furthermore, grenades which are explosive or fragment are not appropriate for crowd control. In Brazil, there have been several documented cases of life-changing injuries sustained from the use of stun grenades. In 2013, for example, student Vitor Aráujo lost sight in one eye after being hit by shrapnel from a stun grenade during a protest in downtown São Paulo53. In a similar incident in 2016, 19-year-old student Deborah Fabri was left blinded in one eye after shrapnel from a stun grenade thrown by police during a peaceful protest in Brasilia punctured her left eye54. More recently, there have been a number of reports of police officers using stun grenades to disperse crowds peacefully celebrating cultural events. In February this year, for example, stun grenades were reportedly thrown by police at crowds of people attending street carnival celebrations in Porto Alegre55 and Rio de Janeiro56. Reports suggest that the police provided little or no warning to attendees before throwing the grenades, as Bruno Lapa who attend the Rio de Janeiro event commented, ‘the police showed up in some 20 vehicles throwing bombs, there was no dialogue’57. 2.8 Regulation of the use of law enforcement equipment At an international level, norms and standards governing the use of law enforcement equipment and weapons are well established. The UN Basic Principles, for example, provide detailed guidance on the legitimate use of force by law enforcement officials with an emphasis on the lawful use of firearms58. More recently, the UN Guidance on Less ▲ A shotgun held by a prison officer, 2018 © MNCPT Lethal Weapons has outlined a wide range of standards focused more specifically on the use of less lethal weapons and equipment, such as chemical irritants and kinetic impact projectiles59. In Brazil, these and other standards have gradually begun to be reflected in domestic law. Inter-ministerial Ordinance no. 4,226, of December 31, 2010, from 2.7 Stun Grenades Stun grenades, also known as disorientation devices or flash-bangs are weapons designed to generate a loud explosion and/or a flash of light in order to cause disorientation (temporary blindness, temporary loss of hearing and loss of balance) and panic. Some models also dispense chemical irritants, inert smoke or rubber projectiles. Stun grenades were originally developed for military purposes, but in recent years have increasingly been used for crowd control in some countries, including Brazil. The explosive nature of stun grenades means that they have the potential to create serious and even lifethreatening injuries due to the pressure of the blast or shrapnel from the fragmentation of the grenade, with the risk of serious injury increasing in accordance with a person’s proximity to the blast. The loud bangs and flashes created by stun grenades can also cause panic among crowds leading to secondary injuries such as falls or crushing. A 2015 investigation published by ProPublica, found over 50 cases of severe injuries and deaths 20  the Minister of State for Justice and the Chief Minister of State of Human Rights Secretariat of the Presidency of the Republic, for example, establishes broad-ranging guidelines on the use of force, including the requirement that ‘use of force by public security agents must comply with the principles of legality, necessity, proportionality, moderation and convenience’60. More recently, Law No. 13,060, of December 22, 2014, established that law enforcement officials (not including prison officials) in Brazil must ‘prioritize the use of instruments of less offensive potential, as long as their use does not jeopardize the physical or psychological integrity of the police’61. The law also establishes the requirement that training courses for law enforcement officials must include content that enables them to use less lethal weapons. While the development of these standards is commendable, it is clear from the cases outlined in the section above that existing guidance on the use of law enforcement equipment and weapons in Brazil is insufficient. In a report submitted to the UN Human Rights Council in 2016 the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment called on the Brazilian government to close the ‘gaps in Law No. 13.060’ by defining ‘which weapons qualify as non-lethal and elaborate[ing] on the interpretation of “legality”, “necessity” and 21