the military, the under-representation of women in the higher ranks indicates that a glass ceiling does exist, i.e., women cannot reach the top ranks due to cultural barriers.240 6. Approaches to Women’s Participation in the Armed Forces In the process of opening up the military to women, the main issue that states consider is which jobs to make available to women. Four approaches to integration can be identified: • Women may serve only in specific units (e.g., special women’s units); • Women are excluded from specific positions; • All functions are open to women on the same basis as men; • Women are entirely excluded from participation in the armed forces. Based on our survey among OSCE participating states, this model does not occur within the OSCE area, though it was only recently abandoned, for example, by Italy in 1999 and Hungary in 1996.241 Special women’s units Special women’s units were common in the past. In the United States, for example, the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), a special unit of the US Army during World War II, was abolished in 1978.242 Other branches of the US military had similar women’s units, including the Navy WAVES, the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, the SPARS of the Coast Guard and the Women Airforce Service Pilots. The integration of women into regular armed forces was gradually prompted by legislative action and considerable political pressure. In particular, since the adoption of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act in 1948, the number and kinds of positions open to women have progressively increased.243 The Women’s Royal Army Corps existed in the United Kingdom until 1990.244 Similarly, there were women’s corps in the Netherlands beginning in 1944, such as the Women Assistance Corps and, later, organizations such as MARVA (Navy), MILVA (Army), and LUVA (Air Force). The women in these corps did not work in combat functions; instead, they worked, for example, in medical units, service units, transport units, and air-traffic-control units. In the Netherlands, in 1982, the separate women’s corps were dismantled, and from that moment female military service personnel were supposed to have the same rights, duties, and opportunities as their male colleagues.245 Women are excluded from specific positions In some OSCE participating States, women are excluded from specific positions. The first roles that were opened to women in the armed forces were that of military nurse, which was traditionally considered the typical female role, and positions in the administrative sector, where tasks were mainly bureaucratic. Women were later allowed to serve in technical roles in logistics services, and subsequently in combat-support technical roles. 240  “The conundrum of the glass ceiling”, The Economist, 21 July 2005, available at <http://www.economist. com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4197626>. 241  Office on Women in the NATO Forces, <http://www.nato.int/issues/women_nato/perc_fem_soldiers_2001_2006.pdf>. Since this model is no longer used in the OSCE region, it will not be further discussed in this handbook. 242  More information can be found at <http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/brochures/wac/wac.htm>. 243  M. Harrel and L. Miller, New Opportunities for Military Women. Effects Upon Readiness, Cohesion and Morale (Santa Monica, California: Rand, 1997), available at <http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/ MR896>. This report provides a detailed description of the various steps of women’s integration in the US Armed Forces. 244  See <www.wracassociation.co.uk>. 245  Katia Sorin (ed.), Des femmes militaires en Occident, quels enseignements pour la France ? (Paris: Centre d’études en sciences sociales de la défense, 2005), pp. 94-118, available at: <http://www.c2sd.sga.defense.gouv.fr/ IMG/pdf/SORIN_femmes_militaires_occident_premiersemestre2005.pdf>. 120 Handbook on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Armed Forces Personnel