94 Resource book on the use of force and firearms in law enforcement proactively in order to identify issues such as “failures in training, shortcomings with the equipment or more basic problems with the use of force process”.212 With regard to electroshock stun guns, shields, belts and batons, experts have agreed that there is no tactical utility to any of these that cannot be achieved with another device, and the risk of arbitrary force amounting to torture or other forms of ill-treatment is too great. As such, their use is not advised. From a preventive perspective, and in order to ensure accountability, effective and independent investigations and oversight mechanisms should be implemented or used in all cases where the use of electroshock devices are alleged to have been used disproportionately, in a degrading or humiliating manner, or in a manner that inflicts pain or violates rights.213 Launched kinetic impact projectiles (rubber and plastic bullets) Description and use Over the years a range of less-lethal ammunition has been developed, such as rubber bullets, rubber coated steel bullets and plastic and wooden rounds. These projectiles (“bullets”) usually have a much bigger surface than conventional ones, so that there is less risk of them penetrating the body but only give an intense impact. They are fired from a range of weapons including rifles, shotguns, grenade launchers (often called riot guns) and specialist weapons, such as the FN303 compressed air launcher. Risks and how to mitigate these Although less lethal than conventional ammunition, these bullets can still be deadly and can most certainly inflict serious injury and pain. Regardless of their intended use, they sometimes do penetrate the body particularly at short range (both via eye sockets, but also through the skin), and can cause fractured skulls or broken bones. There are particular risks attached to the use of rubber coated metal bullets, which are conceived to be less-lethal but are still potentially lethal and carry a high risk of serious injury to a person depending on the body part hit. Studies have shown that rubber coated metal bullets can lead to death and disability.214 Launched kinetic impact projectiles should not be used to disperse a peaceful assembly. In the case of an assembly that has turned violent, this type of ammunition should only be used by trained marksmen capable of individualizing the persons that pose the risk, and only according to the strict requirements of necessity and proportionality. 215 Weapons that fire multiple projectiles at the same time, or that otherwise cannot be targeted at a specific individual, should never be used due to the risk of injury to bystanders. Ibid. See also OHCHR, Human Rights and Law Enforcement, A Manual on Human Rights Training for Law Enforcement Officials, 2017, chapter 5 (Human Rights and Use of Force), p. 104-105. 214  See for example “Blunt and penetrating injuries caused by rubber bullets during the Israeli-Arab conflict in October, 2000: a retrospective study”, The Lancet, Volume 359, No. 9320, 25 May 2002, pp. 1795–1800. 215  According to Amnesty International and Omega Research Foundation “ammunition firing multiple projectiles is notoriously inaccurate, indiscriminate and arbitrary and should be prohibited. This prohibition should include all multiple projectiles from any type of ammunition or munition”, Amnesty International and Omega Research Foundation, The human rights impact of less lethal weapons and other law enforcement equipment, 2015, p. 17. 212  213