prison population. Some prison authorities have questioned claims that prisons are “incubators” of VERLT, stressing that the roots of any prisoner’s radicalization leading to terrorism or violence may also be found in their background and experiences before 54 entering the prison setting. 53 Also, the importance of preventing and countering terrorist radicalization in prisons is often emphasised in connection with “foreign terrorist fighters” and their potential 55 to radicalize other prisoners. Policy debate, therefore, often focuses too heavily on religiously motivated violent extremism, as opposed to the many other ideologically motivated forms, and this can have a discriminatory effect on the treatment of individuals from certain religious groups. Equally, it is important to remember that, due to a prisoner’s behaviour, they could be perceived as on a path to VERLT when, in fact, they are acting in a certain way as a result of other grievances – or human rights abuses – experienced in prison that have no connection to any ideology. While it is crucial to better grasp how VERLT may occur in prisons, the potential consequences of and threats to security posed by radicalization to violence or terrorism 56 in prison legitimately call for tailored and proportionate preventive measures. VERLT in prisons may take various forms and have multiple consequences, including producing and disseminating propaganda and violent extremist literature, channelling to and receiving such information from the outside world, disruptive activities and active resistance, intimidating prison staff and authorities and instigating violent clashes with staff (and 57 other groups of prisoners). Alternately, some prisoners who are radicalized to terrorism 58 may be particularly compliant with prison rules and regimes, thus keeping a low profile. Factors conducive to VERLT in prisons As with VERLT in general, there is no direct pathway to VERLT in prisons; it is a non-linear process that may develop over a short period or an extended timeline. Likewise, there is also no single profile or determining feature of prisoners who may be “vulnerable” to violent extremism and may become radicalized towards terrorism. The factors described below can make an individual more vulnerable to VERLT, but this does not mean to imply that any of these will always or inevitably lead someone to engage in a process of radicalization to violence or terrorism. 53 54 55 56 57 58 “It is 0.4 per cent in Spain, 0.8 per cent in the United Kingdom and Italy, 1.3 per cent in Denmark and Sweden, and 2.3 per cent in Belgium and France. In short, radicalization is a marginal phenomenon, in prison just like in our societies”, Speech by Thomas Renard, Senior Research Fellow at the Egmont Institute Arria meeting of the United Nations Security Council Challenges of Radicalization in Prison United Nations, New York, 12 November 2019. See for example, in France, “La prise en charge de la radicalization islamiste en milieu carcéral” (in French only), Contrôleur général des Lieux de Privation de Liberté (CGLPL), 11 June 2015, p. 9. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 2396 (2017), S/RES/2396 (2017), preamble and paras. 40, 41. Council of Europe, “Guidelines for Prison and Probation Services regarding Radicalisation and Violent Extremism”, 2 March 2016, II. Scope. UNODC, Handbook on the Management of Violent Extremist Prisoners and the Prevention of Radicalization to Violence in Prisons, op. cit., note 2, p. 107. This has been observed, for example, in French prisons, see “La prise en charge de la radicalization islamiste en milieu carcéral” CGLPL, op. cit., note 54, pp. 7-8. 21