Els Leye and Ino Kehrer 107 powerlessness has been taken into consideration, as it allows including the specific status of the victim (age, sex, and physical and mental health)7. Severe pain and suffering In the case of FGM, severe pain and suffering have been well documented. In 2016, the World Health Organisation provided a summary of the available evidence of FGM’s negative impacts on health and wellbeing (table 1)8. The effects of FGM can occur in the short or long term and include health consequences, sexual and reproductive health risks, and psychological risks. Table 1: Health risks of FGM Immediate health risks Haemorrhage Pain Shock Genital tissue swelling Infections Urination problems Wound healing problems Death Obstetric risks Caesarean section Postpartum haemorrhage Episiotomy Prolonged labour Obstetric tears/lacerations Instrumental delivery Difficult labour/dystocia Extended maternal hospital stay Stillbirth and early neonatal death Infant resuscitation at delivery Sexual functioning risks Dyspareunia Decreased sexual satisfaction Reduced sexual desire and arousal Decreased lubrication during sexual intercourse Reduced frequency of orgasm or anorgasmia torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. A/HRC/7/3, 15 January 2008, §27. 7 A/HRC/7/3, § 28 & §29. 8 World Health Organisation, 2016. WHO Guidelines on the management of health complications from female genital mutilation.