xii GENDER PERSPECTIVES ON TORTURE: Law and Practice Gender-Based Violence Gender-based violence is globally prevalent and can occur against any person due to their sex and socially constructed gender roles. Whether in peacetime or during conflict, women, girls, les­ bian, gay, bisexual, transgender persons, and sexual minorities and gender non-conforming indi­ viduals are the predominant targets of gender-based violence. Men and boys can also be victims of gender-based violence, including sexual violence. As the Committee against Torture noted in its general comment No. 2 (2007), gender-based violence can take the form of sexual violence and many other forms of physical violence and mental torment. This publication builds on my report, which introduced the impact of entrenched discrimina­ tion, patriarchal, heteronormative and discriminatory power structures and socialized gender ste­ reotypes to identify gaps in the torture and ill-treatment framework. More specifically, the report provided guidance to States on their obligations and recommendations to bridge the gaps in pre­ vention, protection, and access to justice and remedies. The articles within this publication each contribute to many different ways in which women, girls, and LGBTI persons experience violence due to their sex, socially constructed gender role, and sexual orientation. Furthermore, the articles emphasize States’ obligations to prevent and combat such violence, including investigation and prosecution of gender-based crimes and provision of reparations. Specific Harms Women and girls disproportionality suffer from harmful practices or forms of behavior grounded in discrimination on the basis of sex, gender, and age. Harmful practices are often justified under the basis of social norms, cultural beliefs, tradition, or religion, but harmful practices are motivated in part by societal sex and gender-based roles. Such practices are harmful in that the practice can cause physical or psychological harm or suffering, including short and long-term consequences to victim’s dignity, physical and psychological integrity and development, health, education, and socioeconomic status. The articles addressing this key topical area focus on practices, such as honor killings, female genital mutilation, and mandatory pregnancy or virginity testing of girls. The arti­ cles stress not only eradication of such harmful practices, but also the importance of incorporating a gender perspective to both international and domestic legal frameworks. As my report states, it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced phys­ ical or sexual intimate-partner or non-partner violence, with significantly higher figures reported in some States. Torture and ill-treatment of persons on the basis of actual or perceived sexual orien­ tation or gender identity is rampant, with rape and other forms of sexual violence sometimes being used as a form of “moral cleansing” of LGBTI persons (S/2015/203, A/HRC/25/65). Today, rape and other forms of sexual violence are recognized by international law as torture and ill-treatment. The authors in this publication address the urgency of States’ due diligence obligations to ensure redress from the disproportionate effect of violence against women, girls, and LGBTI persons. Recognizing all forms of gender-based violence as torture or ill-treatment, whether in the public or private sphere, is essential not only to the full understanding of torture, but to upending deeprooted power dynamics, thus allowing for the full realization of human rights for all.