the country or the area where the incidents under investigation took place, and intimidating victims, possible witnesses and sources of information to prevent them from cooperating with the investigators. To overcome these challenges, for example, in the operation of the OHCHR Fact-finding Mission to the Syrian Arab Republic (2011), the United Nations Fact-finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict (2009) and its follow-up expert committees, these bodies resorted to visiting neighbouring countries to meet persons who may have first-hand information on the events under investigation, inviting witnesses and victims to testify outside their country, relying more heavily on official statements and material in the public domain, as well as on informal contacts with individuals able to relay official positions. Lack of cooperation from the authorities has not prevented investigations and fact-finding from taking place nor commissions/ missions from reaching conclusions. E. Methodological tools It will be beneficial for the commission/mission to develop a number of methodological tools to assist its investigation, analysis and report writing. For instance: • Applicable legal framework: A crucial document to be prepared at the beginning of the work of the commission/mission is the analysis of the applicable legal framework and obligations under international human rights and humanitarian law, and international criminal law if applicable. • Timeline of events relevant to the situation under investigation. • Actor mapping: Mapping of key national and international actors relevant to the issue(s) under inquiry, and of links/dynamics relevant to understanding the issue(s) and recommending solutions. A visual representation of key actors and their relationships could be developed from the preliminary information gathered and then improved and further developed as the investigation progresses. • Government/opposition structures: Mapping of military/police/government structures and structure of opposition forces (political leadership, armed groups, decision-making, chain of command, etc.). • Guidelines and protocols for members, staff, consultants and interpreters on protecting information and confidentiality: These should cover the handling of all types of information, verbal, written and electronic, including safe transmission and disposal, and at all locations where the commission/mission will operate. • Interviewing guidelines and questionnaires: These will ensure consistency in the information gathered by the different investigators. It is useful to develop or adapt GUIDANCE AND PRACTICE 65