4.1.1 Proactive communication and sanctions against disinformation Governments and public authorities quickly sought to address the issue of disinformation regarding the outbreak. In Germany, Chancellor Angela Merkel urged citizens to disregard disinformation about COVID-19 and invited them to rely on official information,219 while the Swedish Minister of Defence used a newspaper article to highlight the ‘disinformation pandemic’.220 To proactively provide reliable information, many Member States established dedicated websites, hosted either by government or a specialised ministry (Austria, France, Hungary, Poland,221) and/or by a health agency (Austria, Belgium, Estonia, Finland, Portugal, Slovenia222). In Finland, all public authorities linked their websites to the National Institute for Health and Welfare COVID-19 information website.223 In Sweden, specialised agencies hold a joint daily press conference.224 Slovakian law enforcement is very active in communicating through its Facebook page or in publishing the daily WHO bulletin.225 Several Member States recalled that spreading disinformation is illegal, and may have legal consequences. The Estonian Prime Minister, for instance, warned that knowingly spreading false information may be considered a breach of public order.226 Other Member States have already taken action to sanction those disseminating disinformation: — In Romania, the Decree declaring the state of emergency allows the Minister of Interior to suspend access to online media, or the license of traditional media, if outlets are found to be spreading disinformation on the COVID-19 outbreak.227 This new power was used against a website for publishing disinformation.228  ther Member States initiated legal proceedings against individuals accused —O of deliberately publishing misinformation. In Hungary, disinformation related to a coming city-wide quarantine and lockdown in Budapest was investigated, prompting criminal procedures to be initiated against the alleged perpetrators.229 In Latvia, an individual suspected of disseminating disinformation about COVID-19 was arrested, but later released on the condition of not moving from their place of residence.230 “We share the concern that false information about the pandemic could lead to health concerns, panic and disorder. […] It is essential that governments and internet companies address disinformation in the first instance by themselves providing reliable information. That may come in the form of robust public messaging, support for public service announcements, and emergency support for public broadcasting and local journalism […]. Resorting to other measures, such as content take-downs and censorship, may result in limiting access to important information for public health and should only be undertaken where they meet the standards of necessity and proportionality. Any attempts to criminalise information relating to the pandemic may create distrust in institutional information, delay access to reliable information and have a chilling effect on freedom of expression.” UN Office of the High Commissioner (2020), COVID-19: Governments must promote and protect access to and free flow of information during pandemic – International experts, Press release, 19 March 2020 38