44 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or “drones” capable of deploying a range of means of force have been developed and are marketed for crowd-control purposes. The drone in the image is equipped with stun grenades, and other models can deploy chemical irritant grenades/cartridges, operate chemical irritant aerosols, etc. Armed drones are not widely used for the policing of public gatherings, and there are no known instances where they have been used for this purpose in the OSCE area, although there have been reports of their use against protesters in other countries. Monitors should be aware that, in a number of jurisdictions, certain firearms that are predominantly used to fire conventional metal-jacketed ammunition are sometimes used to fire less lethal ammunition, including in the context of public assemblies. These include assault rifles and handguns. Intended purpose: The intended utility and effect of launchers largely depends on the type of ammunition and the manner in which it is used. Specially designed launchers such as the one shown in image 2 above are intended to be used to incapacitate individuals. Generally speaking, handheld and fixed multiple barrel launchers and UAVs armed with less lethal weapons are intended to be used from a distance (unlike sprays or hand-thrown grenades). As such, they have the capacity to deliver force over a wide area almost immediately. For more information, see the sections on chemical irritants, kinetic impact projectiles and stun grenades. Conventional metal-jacketed ammunition is much more likely to have a lethal effect. The ODIHR Human Rights Handbook on Policing Assemblies states that firearms loaded with conventional metal-jacketed ammunition should not generally be used in the context of assemblies, stating that, even in exceptional circumstances, “intentional lethal use of firearms should only happen when strictly unavoidable in order to protect life.”62 Possible health and/or human rights implications of use in policing assemblies: The use of launchers can lead to serious injury or death, even when used to fire less lethal ammunition. Many are poorly maintained, adding to their general inaccuracy. The level of risk increases when projectiles are launched at close range (excessive kinetic energy) or aimed at sensitive parts of the body (e.g., the head, chest or abdomen). Small projectiles carry an increased risk of causing eye injuries or penetration the skin. 62 UNODC & UN OHCHR, Resource Book on the Use of Force and Firearms in Law Enforcement, op. cit., note 24, pp. 31-32.