begins from the assumption that many programmes will focus on fair-trial standards and related domestic laws, and it aims to provide guidance on how to develop, organize, and support a monitoring programme. Trial-monitoring takes different forms. Most commonly, it is known as a tool for monitoring an individual case, usually a highly politicized one, for compliance with international human rights standards. The focus of this manual, however, is on implementing a comprehensive trial-monitoring programme to carry out a systematic assessment of parts of the justice system, as this reflects the predominant purpose of OSCE trial-monitoring programmes. While contexts are discussed where trial-monitoring may best serve to provide international oversight where serious violations of human rights and fair-trial standards are suspected, trial-monitoring is first and foremost discussed as a long-term activity that will support justice reform. To this end, special attention is paid to organizing programmes in co-operation with the host state and in partnership with domestic organizations to ensure that trial-monitoring is part of a wider process that will result in lasting reforms. The focus of most OSCE trial-monitoring programmes has been on monitoring criminal justice rather than civil or administrative justice, and the manual reflects this emphasis. However, the practical advice and tools the manual provides will still be of use for those who are considering organizing any form of trial-monitoring exercise, including civil or administrative justice or cases with strong political overtones or human rights concerns. The focus on trial-monitoring as opposed to monitoring the entire legal system reflects a primary focus on those stages and aspects of the criminal justice process that involve the judiciary in the public phases of court proceedings. This focus not only correlates with an emphasis on judicial reform and the right to a public trial, but also reflects a methodology that places emphasis on direct observation rather than information-gathering techniques that rely on third-party information. Strategies relating to gaining access to court documents and observing closed judicial hearings are also addressed as a means of expanding direct monitoring activities where consistent with the purpose and focus of individual programmes. On the other hand, for purposes of this manual, the direct monitoring of investigative proceedings, arrests, and detention facilities are largely excluded, as they often require special access agreements to monitor directly or reliance on secondary information such as interviews. It is recognized that this may limit the issues that a trial-monitoring operation may assess using the principles and techniques presented in this manual. However, the advantages of this approach are many, including wider acceptability of a monitoring methodology premised upon international law and not based on special rights of access that is capable of being implemented by any organization. Content and organization of the manual The manual is divided into four sections. Section I, “Overview”, provides an introduction to the general principles underlying OSCE trial-monitoring programmes and the capacities of such programmes to support justice reform. After this initial overview, 14 Trial-Monitoring: A Reference Manual for Practitioners