d. Acts and Omissions e. Public Officials or Persons Acting in an Official Capacity f. Pain or Suffering Inherent in or Incidental to Lawful Sanctions g. Vulnerable Groups 4.1.3 Breach of the Duty to Prevent Acts of Torture 223 223 226 227 228 4.2 Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment under CAT 230 4.3 Non-Refoulement 4.3.1 Substantiating a Claim under Article 3 4.3.2 Burden of Proof 4.3.3 Circumstances of the Receiving Country 4.3.4 Personal Risk 4.3.5 The Decisions of Domestic Courts 4.3.6 Risk of Further Deportation if Returned to the “Receiving State” 4.3.7 Article 3 and the Refugee Convention 4.3.8 Rendition and the War on Terror 4.3.9 Diplomatic Assurances a. Case Law on Diplomatic Assurances 234 236 236 238 239 241 4.4 Claims of National Security Regarding State Party Information on Torture 242 242 243 244 247 250 4.5 Death Penalty 251 4.6 Violence against Women under the CAT 252 4.7 Positive Duties under CAT 4.7.1 Duty to Enact and Enforce Legislation 4.7.2 Duty to Investigate Allegations 4.7.3 Duty to Compensate Victims 255 257 259 264 4.8 Non-Use of Statements Obtained from a Breach of CAT 267 4.9 Universal Jurisdiction under CAT 4.9.1 Immunity of Certain State Officials 269 271 14