security-related areas of concern, such as conflict prevention/early warning, post-conflict reconstruction, maintenance of security, security-sector reform, and promotion of human security.234 235 Box 13.2 OSCE Commitments on Women and Sexual Discrimination: Selected Examples235 41. Participating States … have committed themselves to making equality between women and men an integral part of policies both at State level and within the Organization … . 42. Participating States are therefore recommended to: • … Adhere to and fully implement the international standards and commitments they have undertaken concerning equality, non-discrimination and women’s and girls’ rights; … • Draw on the experience of the OSCE to develop cross-dimensional gender equality policies and strategies … 44. Priorities … (b) Ensuring non-discriminatory legal and policy frameworks • The ODIHR … will assist OSCE participating States in complying with international instruments for the promotion of gender equality and women’s rights, and in reviewing legislation to ensure appropriate legal guarantees for the promotion of gender equality in accordance with OSCE and other commitments; • The ODIHR will assist in the development and implementation of specific programmes and activities to promote women’s rights, to increase the role of women at all levels of decision-making, and to promote equality between women and men throughout the OSCE area, particularly through education in gender awareness; • The ODIHR will assist in the implementation and assessment of national strategies and action plans on measures to promote gender equality and gender mainstreaming; … • The ODIHR and the OSCE field operations will assist, as appropriate, in building up local capacities and expertise on gender issues as well as networks linking community leaders and politicians; … (g) Building national mechanisms for the advancement of women • The ODIHR will continue to provide know-how and support for the building-up of democratic institutions for advancing gender equality, such as Ombudsman’s offices at local and national levels, as appropriate; … . 4. Developments and Factors Contributing to Greater Participation of Women in Armed Forces Despite the fact that women have played an important role in armed forces since time immemorial,236 it has only been during the last thirty years that women have started to play a greater role in modern armed forces. However, despite great advances in removing restrictions to women’s participation in the armed forces in many OSCE participating States, female soldiers still face barriers at all stages of their military careers. Although armed forces are generally conservative organizations that have resisted including women, 234  “OSCE Action Plan for the Promotion of Gender Equality: ODIHR contribution for the Annual Evaluation Report on Gender Issues in the OSCE”, ODIHR, May 2006, p. 12, <http://www.osce.org/documents/ odihr/2006/05/19268_en.pdf>. 235  Annex to Decision No. 14/04 on the 2004 OSCE Action Plan for the Promotion of Gender Equality, Sofia 2004. 236  For an excellent discussion of gender and the military, see Helena Careiras, Gender and the Military: Women in the Armed Forces of Western Democracies (London: Routledge, 2006). 117 Handbook on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Armed Forces Personnel