CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE PRISONERS Prisoners serving long-term or life sentences are often neglected when it comes to rehabilitation programmes. However, all prisoners must be given the opportunity to be rehabilitated, regardless of the length and nature of the sentence43 – including those sentenced to death. It is important to note that any sentence may be commuted or reviewed, and all prisoners may be considered for pardons or amnesties. International standards state that every prisoner should have the opportunity to be rehabilitated back into society. Rehabilitation is particularly important for long-term and life-sentenced prisoners who may find it especially hard to adjust to life outside the prison system. In cases where release or the possibility of obtaining work following release is unrealistic, prisons should consider and prioritise non-formal learning opportunities designed to promote personal development and increase self-confidence. All prisoners should be given the opportunity to work in prison. Post-release barriers In addition to the challenges women face in prison, many also encounter gender-specific barriers to their rehabilitation after release. These often reflect the situation of women in society more broadly, such as expectations of their role in society, low social and economic status, and the general lack of education and employment opportunities available to women in many countries. Most women will have already faced gendered barriers to education, training and employment before coming to prison, and these barriers can persist after their release. Women prisoners often have poor self-esteem and low expectations, with many believing that it is not worth participating in rehabilitation programmes because they will never have the opportunity to use the skills or knowledge gained. The role and status of women and girls in the family can also be a barrier to rehabilitation. Many women are the main caregivers for children and other family members, and their lack of financial independence means that they are often dependent on male relatives, including those who have abused them. The ability to find permanent employment after release and escape from poverty is critical in preventing recidivism. However, women prisoners can encounter particular obstacles in finding secure employment after their release, due to the stigma of imprisonment. Successful rehabilitation is also contingent on the presence of a safe, stable family and community environment and good post-release support. However, these are often not available to women when they leave prison. Imprisonment often leads to irreparable family breakdown, including separation/divorce,44 and the loss of jobs and homes.45 When women are imprisoned, even for short periods, their children often have to live with other relatives or go into alternative care. In these situations, it can sometimes be difficult to reunite families after release. As they are often financially dependent on men, women are at a particularly high risk of leaving prison with no home to go to and no means of financial support. In such circumstances, it is easy for female offenders to fall back into crime. Many continue to suffer high levels of mental health problems and there is a high rate of self-harm and suicide amongst former female prisoners.46 In many countries the crimes for which women are convicted are highly stigmatised, such as sex work.47 This impacts on women, and on their future rehabilitation, both during imprisonment and after release. In most countries former female prisoners face greater stigmatisation than men regardless of the nature of their offence, and are more likely to be ostracised by their families and communities. Women are sometimes imprisoned for having an abortion, for running away from home,48 or for so-called ‘moral crimes’ such as adultery. In some countries, women who have been raped are convicted and imprisoned for having extramarital sex and are later ostracised by their families and communities. Penal Reform International and Thailand Institute of Justice | Guide to the rehabilitation and social reintegration of women prisoners | 17