A/74/148 of undergoing female genital mutilation every year. In some countries, the prevalence rates are at over 80 per cent. 43 40. Female genital mutilation causes severe and prolonged suffering and its purposes are generally of discriminatory character, given that it is inflicted with a view to enforcing patriarchal standards of female chastity through the elimination of sexual pleasure and, indeed, the perpetuation of suffering. 44 It is generally inflicted on girls who are, in the circumstances, powerless to resist or escape such abuse. Female genital mutilation has been consistently regarded as torture or ill-treatment by the Special Rapporteur (A/HRC/7/3, paras. 50–53; A/HRC/31/57, para. 61–62) and, for the purposes of refugee law, as persecution. 45 41. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, given that female genital mutilation involves the intentional and purposeful or discriminatory infliction of severe pain or suffering on powerless persons, the practice amounts to torture or, in the absence of one or more of those constitutive elements, to other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. H. “Honour” crimes 42. “Honour” crimes are crimes perpetrated by family members predominantly on women or girls deemed to have defiled the honour of the family, in a purported attempt to redeem such familial honour. Every year, such crimes expose countless women to severe suffering and serious injury and result in thousands of “honour” killings across the world. 46 As the Special Rapporteur on violence against women has stated in that context: “Honour is defined in terms of women’s assigned sexual and familial roles as dictated by traditional family ideology. Thus adultery, premarital relationships (which may or may not include sexual relations), rape and falling in love with an ‘inappropriate’ person may constitute violations of family honour” (E/CN.4/1999/68, para. 18). Furthermore, LGBTI persons can also become victims of such violence, including “honour” killings, carried out against them because they are seen to have brought shame on their family, often for transgressing gender norms or societal expectations in respect of sexuality and behaviour ( A/HRC/19/41, para. 25). The purported intent of “honour” crimes is to redeem personal or family honour by taking action against the alleged culprit, which invariably involves elements of punishment, coercion or intimidation and, in general, aims to enforce a deeply discriminatory social order. 43. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, the intentional and purposeful or discriminatory infliction of severe pain or suffering on a powerless person with the purported aim of redeeming personal or familial honour amounts to torture or, in the absence of one or more of those constitutive elements, to other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. I. Trafficking of family members 44. Human trafficking involves the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, __________________ 43 44 45 46 14/23 UNICEF, “Female genital mutilation/cutting: a global concern” (New York, 2016); and UNICEF, Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of t he dynamics of change (New York, 2013). Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation, pp. 5–7. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Guidance Note on Refugee Claims relating to Female Genital Mutilation (May 2009). http://hbv-awareness.com/statistics-data/. 19-11892