-19 2.1.1. Direct violence Direct violence is always perpetrated directly by an aggressor that intends to harm others physically (e.g. beatings, murders, assaults, excessive use of force) or psychologically (e.g. bullying,13 humiliation, discrimination) or aims to damage things. It also includes sexual violence (e.g. acts of a sexual nature committed by any person against another by coercion)14 and gender based violence (e.g. any type of violence perpetrated against a person or group of people because of their factual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation and/or gender identity).15 The WHO refers to three categories of victim-perpetrator relationships: • Self-directed violence - Violence committed against oneself (e.g. suicide and non-suicidal self-injury, self-inflicted violence, self-neglect) • Interpersonal violence - Violence committed by one individual against another • Collective violence - Violence committed by a group of individuals against one or more persons (e.g. gang violence, violence related to religious conflicts, fights among different wings of the prison, riots, excessive use of force carried out by correctional emergency response teams). In a prison context, interpersonal violence and collective violence can further be categorised as: • Inter-prisoner violence • Violence committed by prisoners against staff • Violence by staff against prisoners 13. Her Majesty’s Prison Service (HMPS), Prison Service Order 2750: Violence Reduction (2004) PSO 2750, which defines bullying as: ‘Conduct motivated by a desire to hurt, threaten or frighten someone. It can be physical, verbal, psychological, emotional, or economical and of the very subtle. It is usually repeated behaviour, unprovoked and intended to cause fear or harm of the victim. Bullying cannot be mutual: it always involves a power imbalance. This distinguishes bullying from fights and assaults.’ 14. See the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), ‘Sexual Violence in Detention’ (2017), where the ICRC defines sexual violence in detention as follows ‘‘the term ‘sexual violence’ is used to describe acts of a sexual nature committed by any person against another by coercion. Coercion can be caused by circumstances such as the fear of violence, duress, force, threat of force, psychological oppression or abuse of power. Sexual violence also comprises acts of a sexual nature committed by taking advantage of a coercive environment or a person’s incapacity to give genuine consent.” 15. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), ‘General Recommendation No 35 on Gender-Based Violence against Women, Updating General Recommendation No 19’ (2017) CEDAW/C/GC/35; Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (adopted 7 April 2011, entered into force 1 August 2014) (Istanbul Convention) Art 3: ‘gender-based violence against women shall mean violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately’; as well as the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), ‘Guidelines for Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Settings: Focusing on Prevention of and Response to Sexual Violence in Emergencies’ (2005) 7, which define violence as ‘an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will, and that is based on socially ascribed (gender) differences between males and females’ (2005). Such definition is also adopted by the UNHCR. Monitoring Prison Violence