-22 • Unkept environments that leave people feeling uncared for. • Cultural norms that accept violence as a solution to difficulties or as a way of establishing respect • Lack of activity and illicit prison trade as well as related debts. • Use of drugs and alcohol. Their use may lead to physical and psychological dependence, mental health problems and related acts of (self-directed) violence • Interactions with staff in which prisoners feel mistreated, wrongfully accused or punished, and are neither treated kindly, fairly or justly, nor have decisions explained to them. In general, factors relevant for the emergence of prison violence can be grouped as followed: • Prisoner characteristics prior and during imprisonment (e.g. age and gender, history of violence, personality, use of psychoactive substances, vulnerability to violence and victimisation) • Structural or situational factors (e.g. prison architecture and design; level of security, prison size, time out of cell, freedom of movement, the availability of different resources and facilities, the extent of choice over daily activities, communication difficulties due to language barriers, staff shortage, trafficking of drugs and contrabands) • Administrative, procedural and managerial factors (e.g. management style; staff skills, experience and training; prison culture; lack of prison officer discipline and morale; staff violence; conflict resolution skills; accountability; functioning of a complaint mechanism; perception of safety and fairness; procedure for recording incidents) • Outside environmental influences (e.g. political mood, political pressure on prison administration, racial tensions, criminal policies). 2.3. What works to prevent prison violence Because of its complexity, many States and prison administrations often struggle to provide a long-term solution to the problem of violence. Often violence is countered by focusing only on its immediate causes and by adopting a more coercive prison environment with higher security levels, for example by upgrading equipment of prison officers (e.g. pepper spray